Archaeological Period Description

 

The Chalcolithic Period (4500-3300 BCE) is an intermediate phase between the Stone Age and the Bronze Age ( the name Chalcolithic is derived from the Greek words lithos and chalcos meaning "stone" and "copper", whose use preceded the bronze alloy produced from copper and tin).  By this stage, agriculture and animal husbandry were well established and formed society's economic backbone and ideological underpinning.  Astounding newfound wealth and artistic proficiency marks the Chalcolithic period as an impressive early period in Near Eastern archaeology.

 

The Early Bronze Age (Early Canaanite Period) (3300-2000 BCE) marks the beginning of urbanization.  The scarcity of tin, an alloy used with copper to make bronze, in the Near East prompted the budding civilizations of Mesopotamia and Sumer to search for raw materials in new lands thereby indirectly stimulating their expansion into new territories.  A complex trade network was evolving which necessitated an administrative hierarchy – storage systems, computation and writing, and other characteristics of needed for urbanization.  However this society quickly fragmented into smaller (often nomadic) groups when the large urban centres finally collapsed (Late Early Bronze Age IV, (2300 – 2000 BCE).

 

The Middle Bronze Age (Middle Canaanite Period) (2000-1550 BCE) – parallel to the Middle Kingdom in Egypt and the Old Babylonian Period of King Hammurabi in Mesopotamia – saw the resurgence of city-states, whose main urban centres were surrounded by massive earthwork fortifications.  The impressions of this period are generally of peaceful coexistence.  Commerce with Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Aegean region was on a larger scale than ever before; this was truly a period of internationalism.

 

Through much of The Late Bronze Age (Late Canaanite Period) (1550-1200 BCE), Canaan was subjected to Egyptian rule.  The number of settlements, during this period decreased markedly from the previous age and few rural settlements are known.  This suggests that a large element of the population had reverted to nomadism once again. The land of Palestine (Canaan) truly served as bridge or link between Egypt and Syria as trade routes and the movement of peoples steadily increased

 

The Early Iron Age I (Early Israelite Period) (1200-930 BCE) have traditionally been associated with the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites, and the settlement of the tribes under the leadership of the Judges. 

 

It is now thought that much of the Israelite population was already present in the form of nomadic and semi-nomadic groups living in the rugged central hills of Samaria.  These groups subsequently consolidated control over this region, and united under a single ruler (Saul, then David according to the Bible) to counter the threat of the Philistines (one of the 'Sea Peoples' originating in the Aegean region) living on the coast and the Canaanites living on the lowlands.  Gradually prevailing against their enemies, they expanded into Judah, the Galilee, the Negev, and across the east bank of the Jordan River. 

The Iron Age II (The Israelite Period) (930-586 BCE), also called the 'Division of the Kingdom Era", continues with the United Kingdom under Solomon until the devastating division of the of the kingdom: Israel by the Assyrians in 772 BCE, and Judah by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, culminating with the Destruction of The Temple in Jerusalem in the same year.

 

Archaeological strata from The Iron Age III (The Persian Period / Second Temple Period) (586-332 BCE) tend to be incoherent and highly disturbed due to later building or erosion subsequent to the sites' abandonment.  The resulting scarcity of finds once led scholars to believe that it was a period of relative poverty when the country had still not recovered from the ravages of The Iron Age II.  However, it is now recognized that the Persian Age (Iron Age III) was a period of prosperity, particularly in the coastal cities, bolstered by a burgeoning maritime trade.  Cities grew rapidly, under the guidelines of Hippodamian (grid) planning.  Although the Persians were the supreme power at this time, commerce and contact were mainly oriented toward the Aegean and Phoenicia.  One indication of this is that the coins introduced into the local markets were Greek and Phoenician, not Persian.

 

The Hellenistic Period (332-63 BCE), starting with the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 BCE marked another turning point for inhabitants of Eretz-Israel.  Greek influence was now stronger than ever, with political and cultural institutions spreading a new worldview, that of Hellenism.  Under Alexander, new cities were established and populated by Macedonian veterans, Greek mercenaries and traders, and elements of the local population.

 

The Roman Age I (63 BCE-70 CE) in Judea it can be said to have begun when the Hasmonean dynasty was replaced by the rule of Herod under Roman patronage.  The first century CE. saw the heyday of Jewish art, for both the Hasmoneans and Herod did their utmost to restore glory of the First Temple Period.  Ornamented architectural elements, decorated ossuaries (urns) and lamps, coins, jewellery, and other objects all expressed an aesthetic akin to the glory of Roman art, yet at the same time this expression was coloured and limited by Jewish motifs and restrictions.

 

The Roman Age II (70-324 CE) began after the total destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE.  Jerusalem was almost completely destroyed during the rebellion (132-135 CE) led by Simon Bar Kokhba, following which the Jews were banished from the city.  Under the Roman emperor Hadrian, the city was rebuilt as a pagan city and its name changed to Aelia Capitona.  The era of the Jews with Jerusalem as its capital had ended.

 

The Byzantine Period (324-640 CE) saw the building of numerous churches and synagogues.  Though Jerusalem appears to have been off-limits to Jews, these two monotheistic religions – Christianity and Judaism – existed side by side, in competition, but with much in common. Comparing the techniques and motifs in contemporary ecclesiastic architecture, mosaics, oil-lamps, and coinage one detects a tremendous variety of imagery and even some ideological crossovers.  The Roman Emperor, Constantine adopts the Christian religion around 320 CE. and moves the capitol east from Rome to Byzantium (Constantinople, now Istanbul) effectively splitting the Empire in two - the Latin west and the Greek east.

 

PART 3